Captive Propagation, Introduction, and Translocation Programs for Wildlife Vertebrates

Captive Propagation, Introduction, and Translocation Programs for Wildlife Vertebrates
		by *Joshua Dein* National Biological Service *Kathryn Converse* National Biological Service *Christy Wolf* University of Wisconsin
Captive propagation, introduction, and translocation (relocation) programs for many animals have been undertaken by federal, state, and private agencies for more than 20 years. These programs help aid the recovery of endangered and threatened species, reestablish lost species, augment declining populations, increase recreational opportunities, reduce nuisance species, and introduce non-native species. Davidson and Nettles (1992) discuss translocation as a component of successful early restorations of game species including wild turkey (Meleagris gallopavo) and white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus), and recovery of endangered species such as the peregrine falcon (Falco peregrinus). Despite some successes, the total number of translocations that occur yearly is unknown, as is the success and effects of these programs, because there is rarely appreciable monitoring after release (Griffith et al. 1989; Gogan 1990). This report focuses on trends in the use of translocation programs and disease transmission following translocation of wildlife vertebrates other than fish.

		Captive-reared whooping crane chicks released in Kissimmee Prairie, Florida, 1993. Courtesy International Crane Foundation
In the absence of a national data base on wildlife translocations, a search for publications with information on translocations was performed by using Wildlife Review and the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Reference Service CD-ROM data bases for the 20-year period, 1971-91. In addition, personnel from multiple federal, state, and private agencies that conduct propagation and translocation programs were contacted for supplemental information and literature. Increasing numbers of books (Neilsen and Brown 1988), journals (Ullrey 1993), and meetings (Junge 1992; Wolff and Seal 1992) discuss wildlife translocations and many contain information on the effects of translocations on animals and their environment.

Trends

Fig. 1. Percentage of citations relating to translocations, 1971-91. Sample size = 292,628.

Of 292,628 citations reviewed, 1,431 addressed translocations. There were relatively high percentages of citations that included translocation programs in the early 1970's and again in the late 1980's with a general increasing trend overall (Fig. 1). Although the number of publications probably underestimates the true extent of translocation programs, it does demonstrate the trend of continued interest, research, and publication over the past 20 years.

Griffith et al. (1989) published a comprehensive survey that estimated an average of 515 translocations per year (414 programs) of terrestrial vertebrates occurring in the United States, Canada, New Zealand, and Australia between 1973 and 1989; 98% were conducted in the United States and Canada. Birds were most frequently (59%) translocated (Fig. 2); 92% of the translocations involved game species, 7% endangered and threatened species, and 1% nongame species (Griffith et al. 1993). Of the 261 translocations in the United States reported by Griffith et al. (1993), wild species were most frequently translocated, and the Southeast had the greatest number of translocations (Table 1).

Fig. 2. Percentage of translocated animals by classes, 1971-86; average number of translocations per year was 515 (Griffith et al. 1993).

In 1985 Boyer and Brown (1988) surveyed the 50 state conservation agencies; 29 confirmed they were translocating mammals (56% native game species, 5% nongame species, and 5% endangered species). In addition, 19 states reported that mammals were translocated by private agencies in their states.

Table 1. Percentages of translocations by geographic area and source of translocated animals, 1973-86 (Griffith et al. 1993).

Geographic area U.S. regions	Wild (%)	Captive (%)*	Total no. translocations
Northwest	85	15	53
Southwest	88	12	24
Central	82	18	40
Southeast	62	38	61
Northeast	89	11	46
Rocky Mountain	81	19	37
*May include some wild-caught animals.

A 1993 follow-up to the Griffith et al. (1993) survey suggests that many of the 414 programs originally surveyed were still releasing animals (C. Wolf, University of Wisconsin, unpublished data). The average duration of these translocation programs was 4.8 years, an increase from the 3 years estimated by Griffith et al. (1989). Boyer and Brown (1988) reported that 40 states projected either no change or an increase in translocation activity.
It is impossible to estimate the total number of animals released throughout the United States, but Maryland provides an example of an ongoing and intensive propagation and release program for mallard ducks to augment the natural population. The state released 409,838 mallards from 1967 to 1991. An estimated 100,000-150,000 ducks per year are also released in Maryland by private parties onto regulated shooting areas (L. Hindman, Maryland Department of Natural Resources, personal communication).
Disease
Every animal represents a living microecosystem containing bacteria, viruses, fungi, and parasites. Wildlife scientists now recognize the translocation of a wild animal never represents movement of a single species (Davidson and Nettles 1992). Unless health-monitoring programs for source populations are in place, the risk is greater that hazardous disease agents may be moved and released into new environments along with the species of interest.
This threat also exists in reverse, of course: animals for which a significant amount of money has been spent on their production may be decimated by a disease agent existent at the release site. Success of a whooping crane (Grus americana) reintroduction program in Idaho was limited by disease, and the current whooping crane reintroductions in Florida face similar challenges.

Williams et al. (1992) documented the importance of overcoming disease problems to have a successful reintroduction program. Table 2 summarizes other documented incidents of disease introduction into new environments via animal translocations. These diseases have substantial effects on wildlife, domestic animals, and humans.

Table 2. Some diseases transmitted by or to translocated animals in the United States (adapted from Woodford 1993).

Species translocated	Source*	Disease or agent	Release area	Species affected	Reference
Desert tortoise	Pet shops, w/c	Mycoplasma	Mojave Desert	Desert tortoise	Jacobson et al. 1991
Whooping crane	MD, c/b	Avian tuberculosis	ID	Whooping crane	Snyder et al. 1991
Waterfowl	Various, c/b	Duck plague	Various	Waterfowl	Brand 1987
Wild turkey	Various, w/c, c/b	Mycoplasma	Various	Wild turkey	Davidson et al. 1982
Parrot	Central, S. Am., w/c	Newcastle disease	CA	Domestic poultry, pet birds	Utterback 1973
Raccoon	FL, w/c TX, w/c	Rabies Parvovirus	VA WV	Raccoon; 6 other spp. Skunk, raccoon	Winkler and Jenkins 1991 Nettles et al. 1980
Red fox	OH, other states	Echinococcus multilocularis	SC	Unknown	Davidson et al. 1992
Bighorn sheep	Los Angeles Co., CA, w/c ID, w/c	Contagious ecthyma (Orf) Scabies (mange mite)	Ventura Co., CA OR	Human Human	Jessup et al. 1991 Thorne et al. 1992
Tule elk	CA, w/c	Paratuberculosis	Pt. Reyes, CA	Tule elk (from contact with domestic cattle)	Jessup et al. 1981
Elk, caribou	Various, w/c	Brainworm	Various, w/c	Elk, caribou (from contact with wild white-tailed deer)	Samuel et al. 1992
*w/c--wild caught, c/b--captive bred.

Conclusions
Data presented here show a consistent if not increasing trend in the number of translocation programs between 1971 and 1991. Multiple disease problems have been documented in animals moved in similar programs. We are alarmed because many of these programs will continue and probably increase in the future, and because most programs do not monitor or follow up to detect ecosystem change caused by translocations. Griffith et al. (1989) found only 27% of the agencies that responded to their survey followed specific protocols for collecting and recording information during translocations. These data indicate a need for a national data base and monitoring program for propagation, introduction, and translocation programs. This data base should be readily available to managers planning similar programs and should provide a mechanism for assessing the positive and negative effects of these programs.
		For further information: Joshua Dein National Biological Service National Wildlife Health Center 6006 Schroeder Rd. Madison, WI 53711

References
Boyer, D.A., and R.D. Brown. 1988. A survey of translocations of mammals in the United States, 1985. Pages 1-11 in L. Neilsen and R.D. Brown, eds. Translocation of wild animals. Wisconsin Humane Society, Milwaukee, WI, and Caesar Kleberg Wildlife Research Institute, Kingsville, TX. Brand, C.J. 1987. Duck plague. Pages 117-127 in M. Friend, ed. Field guide to wildlife diseases. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service Resour. Publ. 167. Davidson, W.R., M.J. Appel, G.L. Doster, O.E. Baker, and J.F. Brown. 1992. Diseases and parasites of red foxes, gray foxes, and coyotes from commercial sources selling to fox-chasing enclosures. Journal of Wildlife Diseases 28:581-589. Davidson, W.R., and V.F. Nettles. 1992. Relocation of wildlife: identifying and evaluating disease risks. Transactions of the North American Wildlife and Natural Resour. Conference 57:466-473. Davidson, W.R., V.F. Nettles, C.E. Couvillion, and H.W. Yoder, Jr. 1982. Infectious sinusitis in wild turkeys. Avian Diseases 26:402-405. Gogan, P.J.P. 1990. Considerations in the reintroduction of native mammalian species to restore natural ecosystems. Natural Areas Journal 10:210-217. Griffith, B., J.M. Scott, J.W. Carpenter, and C. Reed. 1989. Translocation as a species conservation tool: status and strategy. Science 245:477-480. Griffith, B., J.M. Scott, J.W. Carpenter, and C. Reed. 1993. Animal translocations and potential disease transmission. Journal of Zoo and Wildlife Medicine 24:231-236. Jacobson, E.R., J.M. Gaskin, M.B. Brown, R.K. Harris, C.H. Gardiner, L. La Pointe, H.P. Adams, and C. Reggiardo. 1991. Chronic upper respiratory tract disease of free-living desert tortoises. Journal of Wildlife Diseases 27:296-316. Jenkins, S.R., B.D. Perry, and W.G. Winkler. 1988. Ecology and epidemiology of raccoon rabies. Review of Infectious Diseases 10:S620-S625. Jessup, D.A., B. Abbas, D. Behymer, and P. Grogan. 1981. Paratuberculosis in tule elk in California. Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association 179:1253-1254. Jessup, D.A., R.K. Clark, and N.D. Kock. 1991. Contagious ecthyma in free-ranging desert bighorn sheep: Iatrogenic and zoonotic cases. Pages 215-217 in Proceedings of the American Association of Zoo Veterinarians.	Junge, R.E., ed. 1992. Proceedings of the Joint Conference of the American Association of Zoo Veterinarians and the American Association of Wildlife Veterinarians. Oakland, CA. 404 pp. Neilsen, L., and R.D. Brown, eds. 1988. Translocation of wild animals. Wisconsin Humane Society, Milwaukee, and Caesar Kleberg Wildlife Research Institute, Kingsville, TX. 333 pp. Nettles, V.N., J.E. Pearson, G.A. Gustafson, and J.L. Blue. 1980. Parvovirus infection in translocated raccoons. Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association 177:787-789. Rupprect, C.E., and J.F. Smith. 1995. Raccoon rabies: the reemergence of an epizootic in a densely populated area. Seminars in Virology 5. In press. Samuel, W.M., M.J. Pybus, D.A. Welch, and C.J. Wilke. 1992. Elk as a potential host for meningeal worm: implications for translocation. Journal of Wildlife Management 56:629-639. Snyder, S.B, M.J. Richard, R.C. Drewein, N. Thomas, and J.P. Thilsted. 1991. Pages 74-80 in Diseases of whooping cranes seen during annual migration of the Rocky Mountain flock. Proceedings of the American Association of Zoo Veterinarians. Thorne, E.T., M.M. Miller, D.A. Jessup, and D.L. Hunter. 1992. Pages 18-25 in Disease as a consideration in translocating wild animals. Proceedings of the American Association of Zoo Veterinarians. Ullrey, D.E., ed. 1993. Journal of Zoo and Wildlife Medicine 24:229-424. Utterback, W.W. 1973. Epidemiology of VVND in southern California. Proceedings of the United States Animal Health Association 76: 280-287. Williams, E.S., E.T. Thorne, D. Kwaitkowski, and R. Oakleaf. 1992. Overcoming disease problems in the black-footed ferret recovery program. Pages 474-485 in R.E. McCabe, ed. Transactions of the Fifty-seventh North American Wildlife and Natural Resources Conference. Charlotte, NC. Winkler, W.G., and S.R. Jenkins. 1991. Raccoon rabies. Pages 325-340 in G.M. Baer, ed. The natural history of rabies, 2nd ed. CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL. Wolff, P.L., and U.S. Seal, eds. 1992. International Conference on Implications of Infectious Diseases for Captive Propagation and Reintroduction Programs of Threatened Species. Oakland, CA. Woodford, M.H. 1993. International disease implications for wildlife translocation. Journal of Zoo and Wildlife Medicine 24:265-270.

References

Boyer, D.A., and R.D. Brown. 1988. A survey of translocations of mammals in the United States, 1985. Pages 1-11 in L. Neilsen and R.D. Brown, eds. Translocation of wild animals. Wisconsin Humane Society, Milwaukee, WI, and Caesar Kleberg Wildlife Research Institute, Kingsville, TX.

Brand, C.J. 1987. Duck plague. Pages 117-127 in M. Friend, ed. Field guide to wildlife diseases. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service Resour. Publ. 167.

Davidson, W.R., M.J. Appel, G.L. Doster, O.E. Baker, and J.F. Brown. 1992. Diseases and parasites of red foxes, gray foxes, and coyotes from commercial sources selling to fox-chasing enclosures. Journal of Wildlife Diseases 28:581-589.

Davidson, W.R., and V.F. Nettles. 1992. Relocation of wildlife: identifying and evaluating disease risks. Transactions of the North American Wildlife and Natural Resour. Conference 57:466-473.

Davidson, W.R., V.F. Nettles, C.E. Couvillion, and H.W. Yoder, Jr. 1982. Infectious sinusitis in wild turkeys. Avian Diseases 26:402-405.

Gogan, P.J.P. 1990. Considerations in the reintroduction of native mammalian species to restore natural ecosystems. Natural Areas Journal 10:210-217.

Griffith, B., J.M. Scott, J.W. Carpenter, and C. Reed. 1989. Translocation as a species conservation tool: status and strategy. Science 245:477-480.

Griffith, B., J.M. Scott, J.W. Carpenter, and C. Reed. 1993. Animal translocations and potential disease transmission. Journal of Zoo and Wildlife Medicine 24:231-236.

Jacobson, E.R., J.M. Gaskin, M.B. Brown, R.K. Harris, C.H. Gardiner, L. La Pointe, H.P. Adams, and C. Reggiardo. 1991. Chronic upper respiratory tract disease of free-living desert tortoises. Journal of Wildlife Diseases 27:296-316.

Jenkins, S.R., B.D. Perry, and W.G. Winkler. 1988. Ecology and epidemiology of raccoon rabies. Review of Infectious Diseases 10:S620-S625.

Jessup, D.A., B. Abbas, D. Behymer, and P. Grogan. 1981. Paratuberculosis in tule elk in California. Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association 179:1253-1254.

Jessup, D.A., R.K. Clark, and N.D. Kock. 1991. Contagious ecthyma in free-ranging desert bighorn sheep: Iatrogenic and zoonotic cases. Pages 215-217 in Proceedings of the American Association of Zoo Veterinarians.

Junge, R.E., ed. 1992. Proceedings of the Joint Conference of the American Association of Zoo Veterinarians and the American Association of Wildlife Veterinarians. Oakland, CA. 404 pp.

Neilsen, L., and R.D. Brown, eds. 1988. Translocation of wild animals. Wisconsin Humane Society, Milwaukee, and Caesar Kleberg Wildlife Research Institute, Kingsville, TX. 333 pp.

Nettles, V.N., J.E. Pearson, G.A. Gustafson, and J.L. Blue. 1980. Parvovirus infection in translocated raccoons. Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association 177:787-789.

Rupprect, C.E., and J.F. Smith. 1995. Raccoon rabies: the reemergence of an epizootic in a densely populated area. Seminars in Virology 5. In press.

Samuel, W.M., M.J. Pybus, D.A. Welch, and C.J. Wilke. 1992. Elk as a potential host for meningeal worm: implications for translocation. Journal of Wildlife Management 56:629-639.

Snyder, S.B, M.J. Richard, R.C. Drewein, N. Thomas, and J.P. Thilsted. 1991. Pages 74-80 in Diseases of whooping cranes seen during annual migration of the Rocky Mountain flock. Proceedings of the American Association of Zoo Veterinarians.

Thorne, E.T., M.M. Miller, D.A. Jessup, and D.L. Hunter. 1992. Pages 18-25 in Disease as a consideration in translocating wild animals. Proceedings of the American Association of Zoo Veterinarians.

Ullrey, D.E., ed. 1993. Journal of Zoo and Wildlife Medicine 24:229-424.

Utterback, W.W. 1973. Epidemiology of VVND in southern California. Proceedings of the United States Animal Health Association 76: 280-287.

Williams, E.S., E.T. Thorne, D. Kwaitkowski, and R. Oakleaf. 1992. Overcoming disease problems in the black-footed ferret recovery program. Pages 474-485 in R.E. McCabe, ed. Transactions of the Fifty-seventh North American Wildlife and Natural Resources Conference. Charlotte, NC.

Winkler, W.G., and S.R. Jenkins. 1991. Raccoon rabies. Pages 325-340 in G.M. Baer, ed. The natural history of rabies, 2nd ed. CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL.

Wolff, P.L., and U.S. Seal, eds. 1992. International Conference on Implications of Infectious Diseases for Captive Propagation and Reintroduction Programs of Threatened Species. Oakland, CA.

Woodford, M.H. 1993. International disease implications for wildlife translocation. Journal of Zoo and Wildlife Medicine 24:265-270.

Captive Propagation, Introduction, and Translocation Programs for Wildlife Vertebrates

Trends

Disease

Conclusions