Coral Reef Ecosystems

Coral Reef Ecosystems
		by *Stephen C. Jameson* National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration
Coral reefs are one of the most diverse, complex, and beautiful ecosystems on earth. Coral reef ecosystems benefit humans commercially, recreationally, and environmentally (Laist et al. 1986). The abundant biological diversity of the coral reef ecosystem not only includes coral and the commercially important species associated with the reef but also thousands of other plant and animal species. Thus, the status and trends of this ecosystem are not easily evaluated.
Historically, most coral reef surveys have been limited to discrete reefs or species or have been time-limited (Rogers 1985; Dustin and Halas 1987; Bythell et al. 1992; Porter and Meier 1992; Ginsburg 1994). The status and trends of complete coral reef ecosystems around entire islands or reef tracts (e.g., the entire Florida reef tract) have never been comprehensively evaluated because of the complexity, length of time, and cost of such endeavors. Because of this lack of a comprehensive understanding of the status and trends of coral reef ecosystems under U.S. jurisdiction, this article looks at broad patterns in the status and trends of these ecosystems today with the hope of providing a useful focus for future ecosystem-based National Biological Service (NBS) coral reef endeavors.
Status and Trends

Coral reef ecosystems under U.S. jurisdiction are located in waters throughout the world (Figs. 1 and 2). These reefs can be divided into two broad categories, pristine and at risk. For references on specific areas, please contact the author.

Fig. 1. Coral reef ecosystems under U.S. jurisdiction in the western Atlantic Ocean, Gulf of Mexico, and Caribbean Sea. Coral reef ecosystems are found on or around the Florida Reef tract, Flower Garden Banks, Puerto Rico, and U.S. Virgin Islands. Coral reef ecosystems at risk are indicated by an asterisk.

Pristine Coral Reef Ecosystems

Pristine coral reef ecosystems are in remote locations with little or no human threats to ecosystem health. By definition, the status of these ecosystems is good and the trend in health is steady. Areas under U.S. jurisdiction with pristine coral reef ecosystems include the Flower Garden Banks in the Gulf of Mexico; the northwest Hawaiian Islands (uninhabited); Wake Island; the Northern Mariana Islands (excluding Saipan); Palmyra Island and Kingman Reef; Howland Island; Baker Island; and Jarvis Island in the Pacific Ocean (Figs. 1 and 2).

Fig. 2. Coral reef ecosystems under U.S. jurisdiction in the Pacific Ocean. Coral reef ecosystems are found around the northwest and main Hawaiian Islands, Wake Island, Johnston Atoll, Northern Mariana, Guam, Palmyra Island and Kingman Reef, Howland Island, Baker Island, Jarvis Island, and American Samoa. Coral reef ecosystems at risk are indicated by a red asterisk.

Coral Reef Ecosystems at Risk
Coral reef ecosystems at risk are near human population centers with some or all reefs experiencing local anthropogenic stress. Some important sources of stress include nutrient enrichment from sewage and agriculture, overfishing, and stress from high sedimentation caused by deforestation, agriculture, vessel traffic, and coastal runoff. The status and trends of many coral reef resources within these areas are poor (D'Elia et al. 1991; Ginsburg 1994). In addition, it is impossible to know the status and trends of these ecosystems on an island-wide or reef tract basis because of our lack of understanding of these ecosystems in any comprehensive way. Within U.S. jurisdiction, the coral reef ecosystems at risk include the Florida Reef tract, Puerto Rico, and the U.S. Virgin Islands in the western Atlantic and Caribbean; and the main Hawaiian Islands (inhabited), Johnston Atoll, Saipan (Northern Mariana Islands), and American Samoa in the Pacific Ocean (Figs. 1 and 2).
Future
The United States has abundant coral reef ecosystems. Pristine coral reef ecosystems are especially valuable as "natural" laboratories and control sites that can help us eventually understand the evolution and function of healthy coral reef ecosystems. We will not be able to clearly evaluate the status and trends of unhealthy ecosystems until we better understand pristine coral reef ecosystems. It is vital that adverse effects to these pristine areas are avoided.
Figs. 1 and 2 show that over half of all U.S. coral reef ecosystems are at risk, and some are nearly dead because of human perturbations. Swift legislative efforts and public works programs to reduce nutrients and sediments may be the only way to save many of these national treasures.
		For further information: Stephen C. Jameson National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration Office of Ocean Resources Conservation and Assessment 1305 East-West Hwy. Silver Spring, MD 20910

References
Bythell, J.C., B. Gladfelter, and M. Bythell. 1992. Ecological studies of Buck Island Reef National Monument, St. Croix, U.S. Virgin Islands: a quantitative assessment of selected components of the coral reef ecosystem and establishment of long-term monitoring sites. Island Resource Foundation, St. Thomas. 72 pp. D'Elia, C.F., R.W. Buddemeier, and S.V. Smith, eds. 1991. Workshop on Coral Bleaching, Coral Reef Ecosystems and Global Change: Report of Proceedings. Maryland Sea Grant College UM-SG-TS-91-03. 49 pp. Dustin, P., and J.C. Halas. 1987. Changes in the reef-coral community of Carysfort Reef, Key Largo, Florida: 1974 to 1982. Coral Reefs 6:91-106.	Ginsburg, R.N., compiler. 1994. Proceedings of the Colloquium on Global Aspects of Coral Reefs: Health, Hazards and History, 1993. Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science, University of Miami. 420 pp. Laist, D.W., T.E. Bigford, G.W. Robertson, and D.R. Gordon. 1986. Management of corals and coral ecosystems in the United States. Coastal Zone Management Journal 13(3/4):203-239. Porter, J.W., and O.W. Meier. 1992. Quantification of loss and change in Floridian reef coral populations. American Zoologist 32:625-640. Rogers, C.S. 1985. Degradation of Caribbean and western Atlantic coral reefs and decline of associated fisheries. Proceedings of the 7th International Coral Reef Symposium 6:491-496.

References

Bythell, J.C., B. Gladfelter, and M. Bythell. 1992. Ecological studies of Buck Island Reef National Monument, St. Croix, U.S. Virgin Islands: a quantitative assessment of selected components of the coral reef ecosystem and establishment of long-term monitoring sites. Island Resource Foundation, St. Thomas. 72 pp.

D'Elia, C.F., R.W. Buddemeier, and S.V. Smith, eds. 1991. Workshop on Coral Bleaching, Coral Reef Ecosystems and Global Change: Report of Proceedings. Maryland Sea Grant College UM-SG-TS-91-03. 49 pp.

Dustin, P., and J.C. Halas. 1987. Changes in the reef-coral community of Carysfort Reef, Key Largo, Florida: 1974 to 1982. Coral Reefs 6:91-106.

Ginsburg, R.N., compiler. 1994. Proceedings of the Colloquium on Global Aspects of Coral Reefs: Health, Hazards and History, 1993. Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science, University of Miami. 420 pp.

Laist, D.W., T.E. Bigford, G.W. Robertson, and D.R. Gordon. 1986. Management of corals and coral ecosystems in the United States. Coastal Zone Management Journal 13(3/4):203-239.

Porter, J.W., and O.W. Meier. 1992. Quantification of loss and change in Floridian reef coral populations. American Zoologist 32:625-640.

Rogers, C.S. 1985. Degradation of Caribbean and western Atlantic coral reefs and decline of associated fisheries. Proceedings of the 7th International Coral Reef Symposium 6:491-496.