Red-cockaded Woodpeckers

Red-cockaded Woodpeckers
		by *Ralph Costa* U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service *Joan L. Walker* U.S. Forest Service
The red-cockaded woodpecker (RCW; Picoides borealis) is a territorial, nonmigratory, cooperative breeding species (Lennartz et al. 1987). Ecological requirements include habitat for relatively large home ranges (34 to about 200 ha or 84 to about 500 acres; Connor and Rudolph 1991); old pine trees with red-heart disease for nesting and roosting (Jackson and Schardien 1986); and open, parklike forested landscapes for population expansion, dispersal (Connor and Rudolph 1991), and necessary social interactions.

Red-cockaded woodpecker (Picoides borealis). Courtesy J. Hanula and K. Franzreb, USFS

Historically, the southern pine ecosystems, contiguous across large areas and kept open with recurring fire (Christensen 1981), provided ideal conditions for a nearly continuous distribution of RCWs throughout the South. Within this extensive ecosystem red-cockaded woodpeckers were the only species to excavate cavities in living pine trees, thereby providing essential cavities for other cavity-nesting birds and mammals, as well as some reptiles, amphibians, and invertebrates (Kappes 1993). The loss of open pine habitat since European settlement precipitated dramatic declines in the bird's population and led to its being listed as endangered in 1970 (Federal Register 35:16047).

We obtained historic RCW distribution data, arranged by state and county, from published sources (Jackson 1971; Hooper et al. 1980), and interviews with various red-cockaded woodpecker experts. Current distribution and abundance data were obtained from natural resource agencies and knowledgeable biologists. Most records were reported between January 1993 and March 1994, and most represent direct census data. Specific references are available from R. Costa (Table).

Table. Number of red-cockaded woodpecker active clusters, by state and land ownership category, for various years between 1990-94.*

	Ownership
State	Federal	State	Private	Total
Alabama	150	8	25	183
Arkansas	35	0	121	156
Florida	1,063	128	94	1,285
Georgia	431	2	218	651
Kentucky	5	0	0	5
Louisiana	422	10	73	505
Mississippi	152	0	22	174
North Carolina	408	162	163	733
Oklahoma	0	9	1	10
South Carolina	456	39	186	681
Tennessee	1	0	0	1
Texas	218	26	61	305
Virginia	0	0	5	5
Total	3,341	384	969	4,694
*For information on references, contact R. Costa.

Several terms are used to describe red-cockaded woodpecker abundance. "Group" refers to birds that cooperate to rear the young from a single nest. It usually consists of a breeding male and female, and zero to four helpers, usually the group's male offspring from previous breeding seasons. For reporting purposes, single bird groups (usually male) are tallied. The collection of cavity trees used by a group for nesting and roosting is the "cluster." Although single tree clusters do occur, typically each cluster consists of 2 to more than 15 cavity trees and may occupy 2 to more than 4 ha (5 to more than 10 acres). Each group normally occupies and defends only one cluster. "Population" refers to the aggregation of groups that are more distant than 29 km (18 mi) from the nearest group. A single isolated group may constitute a population.
Historical Distribution and Abundance

The historical range of this species covered southeast Virginia to east Texas and north to portions of Tennessee, Kentucky, southeast Missouri, and eastern Oklahoma (Figure). The range included the entire longleaf pine ecosystem, but the birds also inhabited open shortleaf, loblolly, and Virginia pine forests, especially in the Ozark-Ouachita Highlands and the southern tip of the Appalachian Highlands.
		Figure. Distribution of red-cockaded woodpeckers by county and state. Most historical RCW records are cited from Jackson 1971 and Hooper et al. 1980. For information on references, contact R. Costa.

Red-cockaded woodpecker abundance was described variously as fairly common (Woodruff 1907), locally common (Murphey 1939), common (Chapman 1895), or abundant (Audubon 1839). Occasional occurrences were noted for New Jersey (Hausman 1928), Pennsylvania (Gentry 1877), Maryland (Meanly 1943), and Ohio (Dawson and Jones 1903).
The distribution map (Figure) displays only counties for which specimens or reliable sources can be cited. The gaps in the distribution undoubtedly contained red-cockaded woodpeckers in the past. Most counties without documented occurrences are found in the longleaf pine-shortleaf pine-loblolly pine-hardwoods transition areas in the east gulf region (Figure), where richer soils and rolling topographies were associated with intense agriculture and interrupted fire regimes. Such areas possibly supported smaller populations that were quickly lost with the forest clearing and therefore were never recorded.
Status and Causes of Decline
Red-cockaded woodpeckers survive as very small (1-5 groups) to large (groups of 200 or more) populations. There are at least small populations in most states with historical occurrences (Table). Except for a population of about 90 groups in southern Arkansas and northern Louisiana, the largest populations are found within the historical longleaf pine ecosystem. Other populations outside the longleaf pine range consist of fewer than 20 groups in single or several adjacent counties. Within the longleaf range, there are 4 populations with more than 200 groups and 11 populations with more than 100 groups; all but one are found on federal lands. The remaining longleaf pine-associated populations are small and isolated. Such small populations are threatened by adverse effects of demographic isolation, increased predation and cavity competition, and stochastic (random) natural events such as hurricanes.
The decline of the red-cockaded woodpecker coincided with the loss of the longleaf ecosystem. As forests were cleared, birds were isolated in forest tracts where unmerchantable trees were left. Aerial and ground photographs from the 1930's show that scattered medium to large trees (0.4-2 per ha or 1-5 per acre) were left in many stands. The culled trees (undoubtedly including red-cockaded woodpecker cavity trees) provided residual nesting and foraging habitat for the birds. In some places these trees remain and are used by red-cockaded woodpeckers today.
Since the 1950's, on lands managed for forest products, the forest structure and composition changed in conjunction with clearcutting, short timber rotations, conversion of longleaf stands to other pine species, and "clean" forestry practices (removal of cavity, diseased, or defective trees). These practices eliminated much of the remaining red-cockaded woodpecker habitat. Additionally, aggressive fire suppression promoted the development of a hardwood midstory in pine forests. The adverse impacts of a dense midstory on RCW populations are well-documented (Connor and Rudolph 1989; Costa and Escano 1989).
Recent Developments and the Future
The Red-cockaded Woodpecker Recovery Plan (USFWS 1985) specifies that rangewide recovery will be achieved when 15 viable populations are established and protected by adequate habitat management programs. The recovery populations are to be distributed across the major physiographic provinces and within the major forest types that can be managed to sustain viable populations. Each recovery population will likely require 400 breeding pairs (or 500 active clusters, as some clusters are occupied by single birds or contain nonbreeding groups) to ensure long-term population viability (Reed et al. 1993; Stevens, in press). At a density of 1 group/80-120 ha (200-300 acres; USFWS 1985; USFS 1993), landscapes of at least 40,000 ha (100,000 acres) will be needed to support viable populations. Most forested pine areas large enough to supply this habitat are on public, mostly federal, lands.
With two exceptions (Hooper et al. 1991; USFS, Apalachicola National Forest, FL, unpublished data), there is no evidence that red-cockaded woodpecker populations can expand to viable levels without considerable human intervention. Conversely, numerous population extirpations have been documented (Baker 1983; Costa and Escano 1989; Cox and Baker, in press). Ensuring the survival of the species, even in the short term (50 years), will require landscape-scale habitat and population management to provide the forest structure and composition needed for nesting and foraging habitat and population expansion; and to manage limiting factors (primarily a lack of suitable cavity trees, cavity competition, and demographic isolation) that can extirpate small populations. Both strategies are part of management guidelines drafted by several federal land stewards (USFS 1993; U.S. Army 1994; USFWS 1994).
These ecosystem management plans promote practices that minimize landscape fragmentation, retain suitable numbers of potential cavity trees well distributed throughout the landscape, and restore the original forest cover by planting the appropriate pine species. They recommend the use of growing-season fires to control hardwoods, create open forest conditions, and begin to restore the understory plant communities of the pine ecosystems. Stabilization and growth of small high-risk populations will be aided by creating artificial red-cockaded woodpecker cavities (Copeyon 1990) and translocating juvenile birds from stable larger populations into small ones (Rudolph et al. 1992). Technologies that minimize or eliminate predation and competition problems are available (Carter et al. 1989).
During the past 4-7 years, several populations have stabilized or increased (Gaines et al., in press; Richardson and Stockie, in press) as a result of implementing conservation biology principles--that is, integrating available technology with the species' life history and ecological requirements. The limited number of juvenile birds, however, may hinder recovery progress in all populations simultaneously.
		For further information: Ralph Costa U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service Red-cockaded Woodpecker Field Office Department of Forest Resources Clemson University 261 Lehotsky Hall Box 341003 Clemson, SC 29634

References
Audubon, J.J. 1839. Ornithological biography. Vol. 5. A. and C. Black, Edinburgh. Baker, W.W. 1983. Decline and extirpation of a population of red-cockaded woodpeckers in northwest Florida. Pages 44-45 in D.A. Wood., ed. Red-cockaded Woodpecker Symposium II Proceedings. Florida Game and Freshwater Fish Commission, Tallahassee. Carter, J.H., III, J.R. Walters, S.H. Everhart, and P.D. Doerr. 1989. Restrictors for red-cockaded woodpecker cavities. Wildlife Society Bull. 17:68-72. Chapman, F.M. 1895. Handbook of birds of eastern North America. D. Appleton and Co., New York. 431 pp. Christensen, N.L. 1981. Fire regimes in southeastern ecosystems. U.S. Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. WO-26: 112-136. Connor, R.N., and D.C. Rudolph. 1989. Red-cockaded woodpecker colony status and trends on the Angelina, Davy Crockett and Sabine National forests. U.S. Forest Service, Southern Forest Experiment Station, Res. Paper SO-250. 15 pp. Connor, R.N., and D.C. Rudolph. 1991. Forest habitat loss, fragmentation, and red-cockaded woodpecker population. Wilson Bull. 103 (3): 446-457. Copeyon, C.K. 1990. A technique for constructing cavities for the red-cockaded woodpecker. Wildlife Society Bull. 18:303-311. Costa, R., and R.E. Escano. 1989. Red-cockaded woodpecker status and management in the Southern Region in 1986. U.S. Forest Service Southern Region Tech. Publ. R8-TP 12. 71 pp. Cox, J., and W.W. Baker. In press. Distribution and status of the red-cockaded woodpecker in Florida: 1992 update. Red-cockaded Woodpecker Symposium III: species recovery, ecology and management. Stephen F. Austin State University, Nacogdoches, TX. Dawson, W.L., and L. Jones. 1903. The birds of Ohio. Vol. 1. The Wheaton Publishing Co., Columbus, OH. 671 pp. Gaines, G.D., W.L. Jarvis, and K. Laves. In press. Red-cockaded woodpecker management on the Savannah River Site: a management/research success story. Red-cockaded Woodpecker Symposium III: species recovery, ecology and management. Stephen F. Austin State University, Nacogdoches, TX. Gentry, T.G. 1877. Life-histories of birds of eastern Pennsylvania. Vol. 2. J.H. Choate, Salem, MA. Hausman, L.A. 1928. Woodpeckers, nuthatches, and creepers of New Jersey. New Jersey Agricultural Experiment Station Bull. 470:1-48. Hooper, R.G., D.L. Krusac, and D.L. Carlson. 1991. An increase in a population of red-cockaded woodpeckers. Wildlife Society Bull. 19:277-286. Hooper, R.G., L.J. Niles, R.F. Harlow, and G.W. Wood. 1982. Home ranges of red-cockaded woodpeckers in coastal South Carolina. Auk 99(4):675-682.	Hooper, R.G., A.F. Robinson, and J.A. Jackson. 1980. The red-cockaded woodpecker: notes on life history and management. U.S. Forest Service, Southeastern Area, State and Private Forestry, Gen. Rep. SA-GR 9. 8 pp. Jackson, J.A. 1971. The evolution, taxonomy, distribution, past populations and current status of the red-cockaded woodpecker. Pages 4-29 in R.L. Thompson, ed. The Ecology and Management of the Red-cockaded Woodpecker, Proceedings of a Symposium. Bureau of Sport Fisheries and Wildlife and Tall Timbers Research Station, Tallahassee, FL. Jackson, J.A., and B.J. Schardien. 1986. Why do red-cockaded woodpeckers need old trees? Wildlife Society Bull. 14:318-322. Kappes, J.J. 1993. Interspecific interactions associated with red-cockaded woodpecker cavities at a north Florida site. M.S. thesis, University of Florida, Gainesville. 75 pp. Lennartz, M.R., R.G. Hooper, and R.F. Harlow. 1987. Sociality and cooperative breeding of red-cockaded woodpeckers (Picoides borealis). Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology 20:77-88. Meanly, R.M. 1943. Red-cockaded woodpecker breeding in Maryland. Auk 60:105. Murphey, E.E. 1939. Dryobates borealis (Vieillot), in A.C. Bent, Life histories of North American woodpeckers. Smithsonian Institution U.S. National Museum Bull. 174:72-79. Reed, J.M., J.R. Walters, T.E. Emigh, and D.E. Seaman. 1993. Effective population size in red-cockaded woodpeckers: population and model differences. Conservation Biology 7(2):302-308. Richardson, D., and J. Stockie. In press. Intensive management of a small red-cockaded woodpecker population at Noxubee National Wildlife Refuge. Red-cockaded Woodpecker Symposium III: Species Recovery, Ecology and Management. Stephen F. Austin State University, Nacogdoches, TX. Rudolph, D.C., R.N. Connor, D.K. Carrie, and R.R. Schaefer. 1992. Experimental reintroduction of red-cockaded woodpeckers. Auk 109(4):914-916. Stevens, E.E. In press. Population viability for red-cockaded woodpeckers. Red-cockaded Woodpecker Symposium III: Species Recovery, Ecology and Management. Stephen F. Austin State University, Nacogdoches, TX. U.S. Army. 1994. Management guidelines for the red-cockaded woodpecker on army installations. U.S. Army Legal Services Agency, Arlington, VA. 19 pp. USFS. 1993. Draft environmental impact statement for the management of the red-cockaded woodpecker and its habitat on national forests in the Southern Region. U.S. Forest Service, Southern Region, Atlanta, GA. 460 pp. USFWS. 1985. Red-cockaded woodpecker recovery plan. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Atlanta, GA. 88 pp. USFWS. 1994. Draft strategy and guidelines for the recovery and protection of the red-cockaded woodpecker on national wildlife refuges. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Atlanta, GA. 50 pp. Woodruff, E.S. 1907. Some interesting records from southern Missouri. Auk 24:348-349.

References

Audubon, J.J. 1839. Ornithological biography. Vol. 5. A. and C. Black, Edinburgh.

Baker, W.W. 1983. Decline and extirpation of a population of red-cockaded woodpeckers in northwest Florida. Pages 44-45 in D.A. Wood., ed. Red-cockaded Woodpecker Symposium II Proceedings. Florida Game and Freshwater Fish Commission, Tallahassee.

Carter, J.H., III, J.R. Walters, S.H. Everhart, and P.D. Doerr. 1989. Restrictors for red-cockaded woodpecker cavities. Wildlife Society Bull. 17:68-72.

Chapman, F.M. 1895. Handbook of birds of eastern North America. D. Appleton and Co., New York. 431 pp.

Christensen, N.L. 1981. Fire regimes in southeastern ecosystems. U.S. Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. WO-26: 112-136.

Connor, R.N., and D.C. Rudolph. 1989. Red-cockaded woodpecker colony status and trends on the Angelina, Davy Crockett and Sabine National forests. U.S. Forest Service, Southern Forest Experiment Station, Res. Paper SO-250. 15 pp.

Connor, R.N., and D.C. Rudolph. 1991. Forest habitat loss, fragmentation, and red-cockaded woodpecker population. Wilson Bull. 103 (3): 446-457.

Copeyon, C.K. 1990. A technique for constructing cavities for the red-cockaded woodpecker. Wildlife Society Bull. 18:303-311.

Costa, R., and R.E. Escano. 1989. Red-cockaded woodpecker status and management in the Southern Region in 1986. U.S. Forest Service Southern Region Tech. Publ. R8-TP 12. 71 pp.

Cox, J., and W.W. Baker. In press. Distribution and status of the red-cockaded woodpecker in Florida: 1992 update. Red-cockaded Woodpecker Symposium III: species recovery, ecology and management. Stephen F. Austin State University, Nacogdoches, TX.

Dawson, W.L., and L. Jones. 1903. The birds of Ohio. Vol. 1. The Wheaton Publishing Co., Columbus, OH. 671 pp.

Gaines, G.D., W.L. Jarvis, and K. Laves. In press. Red-cockaded woodpecker management on the Savannah River Site: a management/research success story. Red-cockaded Woodpecker Symposium III: species recovery, ecology and management. Stephen F. Austin State University, Nacogdoches, TX.

Gentry, T.G. 1877. Life-histories of birds of eastern Pennsylvania. Vol. 2. J.H. Choate, Salem, MA.

Hausman, L.A. 1928. Woodpeckers, nuthatches, and creepers of New Jersey. New Jersey Agricultural Experiment Station Bull. 470:1-48.

Hooper, R.G., D.L. Krusac, and D.L. Carlson. 1991. An increase in a population of red-cockaded woodpeckers. Wildlife Society Bull. 19:277-286.

Hooper, R.G., L.J. Niles, R.F. Harlow, and G.W. Wood. 1982. Home ranges of red-cockaded woodpeckers in coastal South Carolina. Auk 99(4):675-682.

Hooper, R.G., A.F. Robinson, and J.A. Jackson. 1980. The red-cockaded woodpecker: notes on life history and management. U.S. Forest Service, Southeastern Area, State and Private Forestry, Gen. Rep. SA-GR 9. 8 pp.

Jackson, J.A. 1971. The evolution, taxonomy, distribution, past populations and current status of the red-cockaded woodpecker. Pages 4-29 in R.L. Thompson, ed. The Ecology and Management of the Red-cockaded Woodpecker, Proceedings of a Symposium. Bureau of Sport Fisheries and Wildlife and Tall Timbers Research Station, Tallahassee, FL.

Jackson, J.A., and B.J. Schardien. 1986. Why do red-cockaded woodpeckers need old trees? Wildlife Society Bull. 14:318-322.

Kappes, J.J. 1993. Interspecific interactions associated with red-cockaded woodpecker cavities at a north Florida site. M.S. thesis, University of Florida, Gainesville. 75 pp.

Lennartz, M.R., R.G. Hooper, and R.F. Harlow. 1987. Sociality and cooperative breeding of red-cockaded woodpeckers (Picoides borealis). Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology 20:77-88.

Meanly, R.M. 1943. Red-cockaded woodpecker breeding in Maryland. Auk 60:105.

Murphey, E.E. 1939. Dryobates borealis (Vieillot), in A.C. Bent, Life histories of North American woodpeckers. Smithsonian Institution U.S. National Museum Bull. 174:72-79.

Reed, J.M., J.R. Walters, T.E. Emigh, and D.E. Seaman. 1993. Effective population size in red-cockaded woodpeckers: population and model differences. Conservation Biology 7(2):302-308.

Richardson, D., and J. Stockie. In press. Intensive management of a small red-cockaded woodpecker population at Noxubee National Wildlife Refuge. Red-cockaded Woodpecker Symposium III: Species Recovery, Ecology and Management. Stephen F. Austin State University, Nacogdoches, TX.

Rudolph, D.C., R.N. Connor, D.K. Carrie, and R.R. Schaefer. 1992. Experimental reintroduction of red-cockaded woodpeckers. Auk 109(4):914-916.

Stevens, E.E. In press. Population viability for red-cockaded woodpeckers. Red-cockaded Woodpecker Symposium III: Species Recovery, Ecology and Management. Stephen F. Austin State University, Nacogdoches, TX.

U.S. Army. 1994. Management guidelines for the red-cockaded woodpecker on army installations. U.S. Army Legal Services Agency, Arlington, VA. 19 pp.

USFS. 1993. Draft environmental impact statement for the management of the red-cockaded woodpecker and its habitat on national forests in the Southern Region. U.S. Forest Service, Southern Region, Atlanta, GA. 460 pp.

USFWS. 1985. Red-cockaded woodpecker recovery plan. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Atlanta, GA. 88 pp.

USFWS. 1994. Draft strategy and guidelines for the recovery and protection of the red-cockaded woodpecker on national wildlife refuges. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Atlanta, GA. 50 pp.

Woodruff, E.S. 1907. Some interesting records from southern Missouri. Auk 24:348-349.

Red-cockaded Woodpeckers

Historical Distribution and Abundance

Status and Causes of Decline

Recent Developments and the Future