Xi’s Anticorruption Drive: Trials for Transparency Advocates, New Rules for Officials

February 21, 2014

Over the past year, authorities detained, arrested, or sentenced numerous individuals, many linked to the “New Citizens’ Movement,” for their anticorruption and transparency advocacy activities. In January 2014, Beijing courts sentenced some of these advocates. Other advocates employed strategies to highlight perceived violations of legal procedure, triggering suspension of their trials. Additional advocates are in detention awaiting trial. The crackdown highlights Chinese officials’ disregard for provisions in international law and in China’s own Constitution protecting freedom of speech, association, and assembly. In addition, authorities’ response to advocacy efforts appears incongruous with official anticorruption rhetoric.

Update: Anticorruption and Transparency Advocates Already Sentenced

In 2013, authorities commenced a crackdown on anticorruption and transparency advocates, many linked to the “New Citizens’ Movement,” which is a broad network of individuals promoting legal and political reforms, human rights, and social justice. In late 2013 and early 2014, authorities began trials for several of these advocates and courts have already handed down sentences in some cases: 

  • A judge sentenced legal rights advocate Xu Zhiyong on January 26 to four years in prison, according to Xu’s verdict. Authorities charged Xu with “gathering a crowd to disturb social order,” accusing him of being a “ringleader” who “organized, planned, and incited” events that “disturbed order in a public place.”[1] The events publicly promoted equality of education and the transparency of governmental officials’ finances. Xu will appeal the court’s ruling.[2] (For more information on Xu’s case see this January 23, 2014, CECC analysis.)
  • On January 29, a judge sentenced anticorruption and transparency advocate Yuan Dong to one-and-a-half years in prison on the charge of “gathering a crowd to disrupt order in a public place” for unfurling banners with anticorruption slogans, handing out leaflets, and giving speeches in public.[3] Yuan reportedly plans to appeal the judgment.[4] (For more information on the demonstrations and the case, see this YouTube video; the verdict for Xu Zhiyong; Yuan Dong’s final statement at the trial, translation via Human Rights in China (HRIC), 27 January 14; and Yuan’s indictment, via HRIC, 11 December 13.) 

Legal Strategies Used To Highlight Procedural Irregularities, Trials Suspended

During some of the trials for other anticorruption and transparency advocates, defendants dismissed their lawyers or their lawyers withdrew as strategies to highlight violations of legal procedure by officials. 

  • The trial of anticorruption advocates Liu Ping, Wei Zhongping, and Li Sihua opened on October 28, 2013, and during the trial, the three dismissed their lawyers because the judge reportedly did not allow the lawyers to speak or properly defend their clients (the trial took place in Yushui District People’s Court in Xinyu city, Jiangxi province).[5] As a result, the judge postponed the trial. The trial resumed on December 3, 2013,[6] but as of February 20, 2014, the judge had not issued a verdict. The three were charged with “illegal assembly” for their participation in demonstrations calling for disclosure of officials’ assets and the release of rights defenders from detention, as well as shouting slogans, and meeting to plan rights defense activities.[7] Later, authorities added two additional charges for Liu Ping and Wei Zhongping, “gathering a crowd to disrupt order in a public place” and “disrupting law enforcement through an evil cult organization” for election campaigning in 2011 and for an Internet posting urging people to attend a trial for a Falun Gong practitioner in 2012.[8] (For more information, see Lawyer Si Weijiang’s defense statement via Chinese Human Rights Defenders (CHRD), 8 December 13, and Liu Ping’s final statement at the trial, via and translated by HRIC, 6 December 13.)
  • Zhao Changqing’s trial opened on December 23, 2013, and during the hearing, Zhao dismissed his lawyers reportedly after it became clear procedural irregularities and court actions would preclude a fair trial.[9] The court suspended the trial[10] and as of February 20, 2014, Zhao’s trial had not resumed. Authorities charged him with “assembling a crowd to disrupt order in a public place.” (For Zhao’s lawyers’ description of the court hearing and procedural violations, see their statement via and translated by HRIC.)
  • The trial for Ding Jiaxi, who authorities charged with “gathering a crowd to disrupt order in a public place,” opened on January 27, 2014, with Li Wei as a co-defendant. One of Ding’s lawyers objected to a number of procedural irregularities and withdrew as counsel.[11] According to Ding’s indictment,[12] authorities arrested Ding for “exploiting the topic of officials disclosing their wealth” to organize and plan “the gathering of many people in public places,” where he participated in activities such as “displaying banners and distributing leaflets.”
  • Authorities tried Zhang Baocheng at the same trial as Yuan Dong. Officials charged Zhang with “gathering a crowd to disrupt order in a public place” for unfurling banners with anticorruption slogans, handing out leaflets, and giving speeches in public.[13] Unlike Yuan, Zhang reportedly dismissed his two lawyers because of the procedural violations related to the hearing.[14]

The trials for additional anticorruption and transparency advocates have not yet begun, including those for Huang Wenxun, Yuan Xiaohua, Yuan Fengchu, and Liu Jiacai. 

International and Chinese Law: Procedural Irregularities and Rights Violations

In detaining individuals who were exercising their rights to freedom of speech, assembly, and association by peacefully gathering and calling for officials to disclose their finances, Chinese authorities disregarded international law and articles of the Chinese Constitution. Articles 19 and 20 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights and Articles 19, 21, and 22 of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (ICCPR) provide for the rights to freedom of expression, assembly, and association. (China has signed and committed to ratify the ICCPR.) Articles 35 and 41 of the Chinese Constitution also provide for the rights to freedom of expression, assembly, and association. The 1989 PRC Law on Assembly, Procession, and Demonstration (English and Chinese) and its implementing regulations, however, require citizens to gain approval from police officials before holding a demonstration. In practice, police reportedly rarely grant this permission.[15] According to Jerome Cohen, Xu Zhiyong’s closing statement in court addressed the constitutional rights issue. Xu “argued that he was not guilty because the government’s application of the criminal law to suppress peaceful public demonstrations deprived him of his constitutional rights. A conviction that violates the constitution cannot be ‘in accordance with law.’”[16]

According to reports, the detentions and trials of anticorruption and transparency advocates were rife with additional procedural irregularities and rights violations: 

  • There were allegations of torture in several cases,[17] especially in the case of Liu Ping.[18]
  • More than once, police did not allow lawyers to meet with their clients, and in some cases lawyers were physically assaulted.[19]
  • The Party committee at the East China University of Political Science and Law in Shanghai suspended lawyer Zhang Xuezhong from his job as a law lecturer after he wrote an article calling for constitutional reforms and reportedly because he defended several anticorruption and transparency advocates.[20]
  • Reports indicated some courts did not provide case files or evidence to defendants or lawyers for review,[21] or did not allow lawyers to make copies of the file materials, although this is permitted under Chinese law (Ding Jiaxi,[22] Zhao Changqing.[23])
  • Judges reportedly repeatedly interrupted defendants and their lawyers when they were speaking, hindering the defense.[24]
  • Court authorities did not allow truly open trials. Officials did not allow open media coverage, and by holding hearings in small courtrooms, they could keep out spectators, citing “limited space.”[25] (Article 14 of the ICCPR provides that “everyone shall be entitled to a fair and public hearing by a competent, independent and impartial tribunal established by law.”) 
  • Court officials reportedly denied defendants the right to question the prosecution’s witnesses in at least one case[26] and to summon witnesses to testify on their behalf in several cases.[27] (Article 14 of the ICCPR provides that everyone has the right “to examine, or have examined, the witnesses against him and to obtain the attendance and examination of witnesses on his behalf under the same conditions as witnesses against him.”)
  • In addition, lawyers assert judicial officials did not follow the law when they separately tried the defendants allegedly involved in the same collective offenses.[28]
  • Officials held Zhao Changqing in solitary confinement in a tiny room and did not provide him with food before his pre-trial hearing on January 20.[29]
  • Lawyers claimed that authorities had detained and interrogated Li Sihua before authorities had properly filed the case for investigation.[30]

Self-Regulation: New Rules to Reduce Ostentatious Behavior

Authorities’ response to advocacy efforts appears incongruous with official anticorruption rhetoric and efforts to reduce ostentatious practices by officials. Examples of recent regulatory measures include one notification to strengthen oversight of officials required to file internal reports to the Party about their finances,[31] and several other rules and regulations to reduce government waste and moderate ostentatious or dishonest behavior by officials.[32] To explain this seemingly incongruent approach to reduce corruption, some observers argue that authorities still feel threatened by civil society[33] and are determined to control public discourse about anticorruption efforts.[34] (For more information regarding transparency of officials’ finances, see this November 5, 2010, CECC analysis, and for information regarding other previous anticorruption regulations, see this December 14, 2011, CECC analysis and this November 20, 2013, CECC analysis.)

 

For more information on the “New Citizens’ Movement,” official corruption, and transparency in China, see the CECC 2013 Annual Report, pp. 78, 140–145.

 


[1] “Indictment [of Xu Zhiyong] by Beijing Municipal People’s Procuratorate, No. 1 Branch. 2013, no. 306” [Beijingshi renmin jianchayuan diyi fen yuan qisushu, 2013, 306 hao], 13 December 13, reprinted in Sina Weibo, reprinted in China Digital Times, 16 December 13. (https://chinadigitaltimes.net/chinese/2013/12/%E5%8C%97%E4%BA%AC%E5%B8%82%E6%A3%80%E4%B8%80%E5%88%86%E9%99%A2%E5%AF%B9%E8%AE%B8%E5%BF%97%E6%B0%B8%E7%9A%84%E8%B5%B7%E8%AF%89%E4%B9%A6%EF%BC%88%E5%9B%BE%EF%BC%89/) For an English translation of the Indictment, see “Indictment of Xu Zhiyong by Beijing Municipal People’s Procuratorate, No. 1 Branch,” 13 December 13, translation printed in Human Rights in China, 21 December 13. (https://www.hrichina.org/en/citizens-square/xu-zhiyongs-indictment)

[2] Jerome A. Cohen, “Xu Zhiyong’s Trial Makes a Mockery of Beijing’s Pledge To Enforce Rule of Law,” South China Morning Post, 29 January 14. (www.scmp.com/comment/insight-opinion/article/1416497/xu-zhiyongs-trial-makes-mockery-beijings-pledge-enforce-rule)

[3] Sui-Lee Wee, “China Convicts Two Anti-Graft Activists in Crackdown,” Reuters, 29 January 14 (https://www.reuters.com/article/2014/01/29/us-china-activist-idUSBREA0S0BX20140129); Chris Buckley, “In China, A Week Full of Trials Over Dissent,” New York Times, Sinosphere (blog), 22 January 14. (https://cn.nytimes.com/china/20140122/c22citizen/dual/)

[4] Human Rights in China, “Lawyers Dismissed or Withdrawn in Protest of Unfair Trials of Three Citizen Activists,” 31 January 14. (https://www.hrichina.org/en/press-work/hric-bulletin/lawyers-dismissed-or-withdrawn-protest-unfair-trials-three-citizen)

[5] “Defense Lawyers’ Statement Regarding the Trial of Liu Ping, Wei Zhongping and Li Sihua,” via and translated in China Change, 28 October 13. (https://chinachange.org/2013/10/30/defense-lawyers-statement-regarding-the-trial-of-liu-ping-wei-zhongping-and-li-sihua/) 

[6] “The Three of Moral Character From Xinyu Are Tortured To Extract Confession, Lawyers Uncover Serious Procedural Violation”[Xinyu san junzi jun zao xingxun bigong lushi faxian zhongda chengxu weigui], Radio Free Asia, 5 December 13. (https://www.rfa.org/mandarin/yataibaodao/renquanfazhi/sy-12052013095533.html)  

[7] Chinese Human Rights Defenders, “Jiangxi Rights Advocates Liu Ping, Wei Zhongping and Li Sihua Will Be Tried for Their ‘Crimes’ on July 18th” [Jiangxi weiquan renshi liu ping, wei zhongping, li sihua bei san yi zuiming, 18 hao jiang chu ting shou shen], 11 July 13 (https://wqw2010.blogspot.com/2013/07/18_11.html); Human Rights Watch, “China: First Trial of Anti-Corruption Activists,” 24 October 13. (https://www.hrw.org/news/2013/10/24/china-first-trial-anti-corruption-activists)

[8] Human Rights Watch, “China: First Trial of Anti-Corruption Activists,” 24 October 13. (https://www.hrw.org/news/2013/10/24/china-first-trial-anti-corruption-activists)

[9] Human Rights in China, “Zhao Changqing Trial Adjourns as Defense Protests Procedural Problems,” 23 January 14. (https://www.hrichina.org/en/press-work/case-update/zhao-changqing-trial-adjourns-defense-protests-procedural-problems)

[10] Chris Buckley, “In China, A Week Full of Trials Over Dissent,” New York Times, Sinosphere (blog), 22 January 14. (https://cn.nytimes.com/china/20140122/c22citizen/dual/)

[11] Human Rights in China, “Lawyers Dismissed or Withdrawn in Protest of Unfair Trials of Three Citizen Activists,” 31 January 14. (https://www.hrichina.org/en/press-work/hric-bulletin/lawyers-dismissed-or-withdrawn-protest-unfair-trials-three-citizen)

[12] “Indictment of Ding Jiaxi and Li Wei by Beijing Municipal Haidian District People’s Procuratorate,” translated by China Change, 13 December 13. (https://chinachange.org/2013/12/21/indictment-of-ding-jiaxi-and-li-wei-by-beijing-municipal-haidian-district-peoples-procuratorate/) 

[13] Chris Buckley, “In China, A Week Full of Trials Over Dissent,” New York Times, Sinosphere (blog), 22 January 14. (https://cn.nytimes.com/china/20140122/c22citizen/dual/)

[14] Human Rights in China, “Lawyers Dismissed or Withdrawn in Protest of Unfair Trials of Three Citizen Activists,” 31 January 14. (https://www.hrichina.org/en/press-work/hric-bulletin/lawyers-dismissed-or-withdrawn-protest-unfair-trials-three-citizen)

[15] Human Rights Watch, “China: Crackdown on Anticorruption Activists Escalates,” 9 June 13. (https://www.hrw.org/news/2013/06/09/china-crackdown-anticorruption-activists-escalates)

[16] Jerome A. Cohen, “Xu Zhiyong’s Trial Makes a Mockery of Beijing’s Pledge To Enforce Rule of Law,” South China Morning Post, 29 January 14. (www.scmp.com/comment/insight-opinion/article/1416497/xu-zhiyongs-trial-makes-mockery-beijings-pledge-enforce-rule)

[17] Chinese Human Rights Defenders, “Travesty of Justice—Beijing’s Show Trials of Civil Society Leaders Xu Zhiyong, Zhao Changqing, & Others,” 23 January 14 (https://chrdnet.com/2014/01/travesty-of-justice-beijings-show-trials-of-civil-society-leaders-xu-zhiyong-zhao-changqing-others/); “The Three of Moral Character From Xinyu Are Tortured To Extract Confession, Lawyers Uncover Serious Procedural Violation”[Xinyu san junzi jun zao xingxun bigong lushi faxian zhongda chengxu weigui], Radio Free Asia, 5 December 13. (https://www.rfa.org/mandarin/yataibaodao/renquanfazhi/sy-12052013095533.html)

[18] Chinese Human Rights Defenders, “China Human Rights Briefing, December 5–December 11, 2013,” 12 December 13. (https://www.chrdnet.com/2013/12/chrb-violence-rtl-victim-seeking-justice-stonewalled-125-1211-2013/#_edn4)

[19] Chinese Human Rights Defenders, “Travesty of Justice—Beijing’s Show Trials of Civil Society Leaders Xu Zhiyong, Zhao Changqing, & Others,” 23 January 14 (https://chrdnet.com/2014/01/travesty-of-justice-beijings-show-trials-of-civil-society-leaders-xu-zhiyong-zhao-changqing-others/);  Sui-Lee Wee, “Lawyers, Relatives of Anti-Graft Activists Assaulted in China,” Reuters, 4 December 13. (https://uk.reuters.com/article/2013/12/04/uk-china-corruption-idUKBRE9B30HZ20131204)

[20] “Shanghai Lawyer Suspended Over Constitutional Campaigns,” Radio Free Asia, 29 August 13. (https://www.rfa.org/english/news/china/suspended-08292013133741.html)

[21] Human Rights in China, “Lawyer Cheng Hai’s Statement About Withdrawing From Case and Appealing Charge” [Cheng hai lushi tui ting shensu konggao shengming], 27 January 14 (https://www.hrichina.org/chs/gong-min-yan-chang/cheng-hai-lu-shi-tui-ting-shen-su-kong-gao-sheng-ming); Human Rights in China, “Lawyers Dismissed or Withdrawn in Protest of Unfair Trials of Three Citizen Activists,” 31 January 14. (https://www.hrichina.org/en/press-work/hric-bulletin/lawyers-dismissed-or-withdrawn-protest-unfair-trials-three-citizen)

[22] Chinese Human Rights Defenders, “Travesty of Justice—Beijing’s Show Trials of Civil Society Leaders Xu Zhiyong, Zhao Changqing, & Others,” 23 January 14. (https://chrdnet.com/2014/01/travesty-of-justice-beijings-show-trials-of-civil-society-leaders-xu-zhiyong-zhao-changqing-others/)

[23] Human Rights in China, “Zhao Changqing Trial Adjourns as Defense Protests Procedural Problems,” 23 January 14. (https://www.hrichina.org/en/press-work/case-update/zhao-changqing-trial-adjourns-defense-protests-procedural-problems)

[24] Human Rights in China, “Lawyers Dismissed or Withdrawn in Protest of Unfair Trials of Three Citizen Activists,” 31 January 14. (https://www.hrichina.org/en/press-work/hric-bulletin/lawyers-dismissed-or-withdrawn-protest-unfair-trials-three-citizen)

[25] Chinese Human Rights Defenders, “Travesty of Justice—Beijing’s Show Trials of Civil Society Leaders Xu Zhiyong, Zhao Changqing, & Others,” 23 January 14 (https://chrdnet.com/2014/01/travesty-of-justice-beijings-show-trials-of-civil-society-leaders-xu-zhiyong-zhao-changqing-others/); Human Rights in China, “Zhao Changqing Trial Adjourns as Defense Protests Procedural Problems,” 23 January 14 (https://www.hrichina.org/en/press-work/case-update/zhao-changqing-trial-adjourns-defense-protests-procedural-problems); Jerome A. Cohen, “Xu Zhiyong’s Trial Makes a Mockery of Beijing’s Pledge To Enforce Rule of Law,” South China Morning Post, 29 January 14. (www.scmp.com/comment/insight-opinion/article/1416497/xu-zhiyongs-trial-makes-mockery-beijings-pledge-enforce-rule)

[26] Jerome A. Cohen, “Xu Zhiyong’s Trial Makes a Mockery of Beijing’s Pledge To Enforce Rule of Law,” South China Morning Post, 29 January 14. (www.scmp.com/comment/insight-opinion/article/1416497/xu-zhiyongs-trial-makes-mockery-beijings-pledge-enforce-rule)

[27] Chinese Human Rights Defenders, “Travesty of Justice—Beijing’s Show Trials of Civil Society Leaders Xu Zhiyong, Zhao Changqing, & Others,” 23 January 14 (https://chrdnet.com/2014/01/travesty-of-justice-beijings-show-trials-of-civil-society-leaders-xu-zhiyong-zhao-changqing-others/); Human Rights in China, “Lawyers Dismissed or Withdrawn in Protest of Unfair Trials of Three Citizen Activists,” 31 January 14 (https://www.hrichina.org/en/press-work/hric-bulletin/lawyers-dismissed-or-withdrawn-protest-unfair-trials-three-citizen); Jerome A. Cohen, “Xu Zhiyong’s Trial Makes a Mockery of Beijing’s Pledge To Enforce Rule of Law,” South China Morning Post, 29 January 14. (www.scmp.com/comment/insight-opinion/article/1416497/xu-zhiyongs-trial-makes-mockery-beijings-pledge-enforce-rule)

[28] Chinese Human Rights Defenders, “Travesty of Justice—Beijing’s Show Trials of Civil Society Leaders Xu Zhiyong, Zhao Changqing, & Others,” 23 January 14 (https://chrdnet.com/2014/01/travesty-of-justice-beijings-show-trials-of-civil-society-leaders-xu-zhiyong-zhao-changqing-others/); Human Rights in China, “Lawyer Cheng Hai’s Statement About Withdrawing From Case and Appealing Charge” [Cheng hai lushi tui ting shensu konggao shengming], 27 January 14.  (https://www.hrichina.org/chs/gong-min-yan-chang/cheng-hai-lu-shi-tui-ting-shen-su-kong-gao-sheng-ming) Jerome A. Cohen, “Xu Zhiyong’s Trial Makes a Mockery of Beijing’s Pledge To Enforce Rule of Law,” South China Morning Post, 29 January 14. (www.scmp.com/comment/insight-opinion/article/1416497/xu-zhiyongs-trial-makes-mockery-beijings-pledge-enforce-rule)

[29] Chinese Human Rights Defenders, “Travesty of Justice—Beijing’s Show Trials of Civil Society Leaders Xu Zhiyong, Zhao Changqing, & Others,” 23 January 14. (https://chrdnet.com/2014/01/travesty-of-justice-beijings-show-trials-of-civil-society-leaders-xu-zhiyong-zhao-changqing-others/)

[30] “The Three of Moral Character From Xinyu Are Tortured To Extract Confession, Lawyers Uncover Serious Procedural Violation” [Xinyu san junzi jun zao xingxun bigong lushi faxian zhongda chengxu weigui], Radio Free Asia, 5 December 13. (https://www.rfa.org/mandarin/yataibaodao/renquanfazhi/sy-12052013095533.html)

[31] The Party reportedly issued a notification to strengthen oversight of officials who submit reports regarding their finances. The full text of the notification, however, does not appear to be available to the public. The name of the notification reportedly was “The Notification Regarding Moving Forward and Doing Better Reporting Work on Relevant Personal Matters by Leading Cadres” and was issued on December 7, 2013. The notification reportedly will require random checks of reports submitted by officials. “CCP Organization Department Answers Questions About ‘Notification Regarding Moving Forward and Doing Better Reporting Work on Relevant Personal Matters by Leading Cadres’” [Zhong zu bu jiu “guanyu jin yibu zuohao lingdao ganbu baogao geren youguan shixiang gongzuo de tongzhi” da jizhe wen], Xinhua, 2 January 14. (https://news.xinhuanet.com/politics/2014-01/02/c_118809122.htm) In addition, authorities issued another related measure to standardize the compilation and analysis of reports filed by officials about their finances. “Comprehensive Measure for Compiling Data on Reporting of Relevant Personal Matters by Leading Cadres” [Lingdao ganbu geren youguan shixiang baogao cailiao huizong zonghe banfa], Chinese Communist Party Central Organization Department, 4 September 13. (https://www.hnredstar.gov.cn/chenzhou/fujian/2013101401.pdf) 

[32] To promote frugality, authorities issued the “Regulations Promoting Frugality and Curbing Waste in Party and Government Agencies” [Dangzheng jiguan lixing jieyue fandui langfei tiaoli], Office of the Central Committee of the Communist Party and Office of the State Council, 25 November 13. (https://news.xinhuanet.com/politics/2013-11/25/c_118287949.htm) To regulate spending on receptions for official visitors, officials issued the “Party and Government Agency Domestic Official Receptions Management Provision” [Dangzheng jiguan guonei gongwu jiedai guanli guiding], Office of the Central Committee of the Communist Party and Office of the State Council, 8 December 13. (https://news.xinhuanet.com/politics/2013-12/08/c_118467426.htm) To regulate administration of funds for meetings, authorities issued the “Central and National Agency Meeting Funds Management Measure” [Zhongyang he guojia jiguan huiyifei guanli banfa], Ministry of Finance, State Offices Administration Bureau, Management Bureau of Agencies Directly Under the Chinese Communist Party Central Committee, 13 September 13. (https://fanfu.people.com.cn/n/2013/0924/c64371-23012992.html). To deter illegal government allowances and subsidies, authorities issued the “Provisions on Punishments for Granting Allowances and Subsidies in Violation of Regulations” [Weigui fafang jintie butie xingwei chufen guiding], Ministry of Supervision, Bureau of Human Resources and Social Security, Ministry of Finance, and National Audit Office, 13 June 13. (https://fanfu.people.com.cn/n/2013/0712/c64371-22183780.html) To prohibit the use of public money to purchase Chinese New Year or national holiday gifts and other items, authorities issued two circulars, the “Circular Regarding Implementing the Spirit of the Central Government’s Eight Rules and Resolutely Halting the Use of Public Funds To Purchase Gifts During Mid-Autumn Festival and National Day Among Other Unhealthy Tendencies” [Guanyu luoshi zhongyang baxiang guiding jingshen jianjue shazhu zhongqiu guoqing qijian gongkuan songli deng buzhengzhifeng de tongzhi], Central Discipline Inspection Commission and Central Party Mass Line Education and Practice Activities Leading Small Group, 3 September 13; (https://news.xinhuanet.com/politics/2013-09/03/c_117214129.htm) “Circular Regarding Strictly Prohibiting Use of Public Funds to Purchase New Year’s Merchandise Such as Fireworks and Firecrackers To Present as Gifts on New Year’s Day and During the Spring Festival” [Guanyu yanjin yuandan chunjie qijian gongkuan goumai zengsong yanhua baozhu deng nianhuo jieli de tongzhi], Central Discipline Inspection Commission, 21 November 13. (https://news.xinhuanet.com/politics/2013-11/21/c_118242624.htm)

[33] Sui-Lee Wee, “China Convicts Two Anti-graft Activists in Crackdown,” Reuters, 29 January 14. (https://www.reuters.com/article/2014/01/29/us-china-activist-idUSBREA0S0BX20140129)

[34] Tania Branigan, “Trials Put Nine Chinese Activists in Dock,” The Guardian, 20 January 14 (https://www.theguardian.com/world/2014/jan/20/nine-chinese-activists-trials); “China: Hypocritical Crackdown on Anti-Corruption Campaigners,” Amnesty International, 21 January 14. (https://www.amnesty.org/en/news/china-hypocritical-crackdown-anti-corruption-campaigners-2014-01-21)